Hellenism

see more: Greek City States

Hellenism was used to describe the period in time when Alexander the great died. In the 18th century in Germany, J.G. Herder indicated the way of thinking of Jews and other Orientals who spoke Greek with Hellenism. Archeological discoveries helped research on Hellenism since the beginning of the 20th century. Greek was the main language in all Hellenistic states. According to Greek traditions is how the schools and gymnasia were organized. The center of research was the libraries of Alexandria.

Religion, Philosophy, and Science Greek religion featured a pantheon of anthropomorphic gods and goddesses. Individual deities patronized human activities or represented forces of nature. Greek religion did not emphasize the afterworld, as did other Indo-European religions, nor did they direct believers to more esoteric or spiritual considerations. Greek religion failed to excite much emotion, and popular mystery religions arose that offered greater spiritual intimacy. The existence of mystery religions in Greek culture is somewhat similar to Daoism in China. Nor did it offer much about nature or ethics, so some thinkers turned to non-religious philosophical systems, often influenced by ideas from Persia and the Middle East, to explain these areas. Some thinkers, such as Socrates and Plato, were concerned with the development of ethical systems offering logical analysis of social and political action. In the Hellenistic period, Stoics taught that human independence could be achieved through strict discipline of the body and physical bravery. These ethical systems were later blended with Christian theology. Philosophers gave various answers to the question of political organization. Plato suggested a state ruled by philosopher/kings. Most Greek political theory emphasized the concept of a balanced constitution with outlets for both aristocratic and popular influence. The principle measure of political ethics was the utility of the individual constitution. Classical Greek philosophy stressed both rationalism and skepticism. Plato suggested that man could approach knowledge of absolute truth through an understanding of ideal forms. Greek emphasis on rationalism bore some resemblance to Chinese Confucianism, and gave rise to scientific exploration, although little experimentation. Greek thinkers were interested in the elements from which the cosmos was created, which in turn led to interest in mathematics and geometry. Empirical discoveries were made in medicine and astronomy, although the astronomical observations of Ptolemy stressed the position of the earth at the center of the universe. Archimedes developed theories of physics relating to water power and mathematics.

Literature and the Visual Arts Science and mathematics were less important than the arts in conveying key aspects of Greek culture. Drama, vital to religious festivals, took a central role in Greek expression. Greek dramatists produced both comedies and tragedies, with the latter receiving greater emphasis. Dramatists, both comedians and tragedians, illustrated the limits of human reason and the consequences of becoming ensnared in powerful passions. Greek drama provided the rules that governed later playwrights. The Greeks also developed history as a form of literature. Greek artists were most advanced in sculpture and architecture. Over time, the Greeks formulated three distinct architectural styles, including the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Greek art and literature was a product of contemporary society, and individual works were often functional.

The Principles of Greek Culture Greek cultural achievement rested on four major principles. Greek political life was encapsulated in political theory, which allowed it to survive and influence subsequent civilizations. Art and sculpture served to glorify human achievement. Greek drama and philosophy emphasized the centrality of the human and the secular. Greek philosophy stressed the logical and rational aspects within the natural world. Despite its importance to later Western civilizations, Greek culture did have limitations. Greek science was often more speculative than experimental and, thus, was often filled with error. Greek culture was predicated on the dominance of a literate, aristocratic elite. It was little interested in adopting popular values.

Hellenistic Culture During and After Alexander The wealth of the Hellenistic states contributed to vast amounts of monumental-scale building, although no new architectural styles were developed. Hellenistic thinkers were particularly interested in science and mathematics, and their work in these areas underlay almost all Western scientific learning for the next 2,000 years. Contributions were made in astronomy and geography, while there was also much interest in astrology and magic.

Economic and Social Structure Greek civilization closely resembles other civilizations in which invading peoples settled down to agriculture. Initially society was divided into a militarized aristocracy and a larger group of free landowners. As the Greek economy became more commercialized, the society became more diverse and hierarchic. The mountainous geography of Greece produced a greater reliance on trade and colonization than in India or China. Frequent war produced a greater dependence on slavery and reduced emphasis on improved manufacturing technology. Greek society remained dominated by an aristocratic, land-owning elite. Greek politics and art was largely aristocratic in tone. Greek society depended on commerce but assigned relatively low social status to merchants. Greek merchants were regarded as socially more acceptable than their counterparts in China but perhaps enjoyed less status than merchants in India.

Rural Life and Agriculture The Greek population was predominantly rural and agricultural despite the political and cultural dominance of the cities. From the eighth century B.C.E., there was a tendency for aristocrats to force small farmers to become tenants or laborers. Aristocrats were better able to convert their operations to commercial crops such as olives and grapes, thus giving them a competitive advantage over their less wealthy neighbors. Mediterranean agriculture was particularly market-oriented, with the result that basic food supplies often had to be imported. The purpose of Greek colonization was, in part, to develop new sources of grain. Commercial forms of agriculture continued to dominate in the Hellenistic period and helped to spread Hellenistic culture.

Slavery and Production Slavery was a key component of the classical Mediterranean economy. City-states used slaves for all types of labor from agriculture to mining. Manumission of slaves was relatively common. Control of slave labor systems required extensive military controls. Use of slaves discouraged investment in technological improvement. As a result, Greece lagged behind both China and India in technological development.

Men, Women, and Social Divisions In Greek law and culture, women were inferior to men. Female infanticide was practiced. Despite their low social status, some Greek women were active in business and did control urban property. Greek marriages were arranged by the patriarchal household head, and husbands could divorce their wives at will. Women were restricted to certain portions of the household. Other cultural divisions were also based on social status. Peasants were more likely to engage in mystery religions. Different belief structures as well as economic disadvantages contributed to peasant rebellions, which unsettled the political life of the Hellenistic kingdoms. Conditions for women appear to have improved in the Hellenistic era.